The Universe’s Secret Forge: How Collapsing Stars Could Make Cosmic Gold

The origin of heavy elements like gold, uranium, and plutonium has long captivated scientists. Traditional theories pointed to cataclysmic events like neutron star collisions, but a bold new framework proposed by researchers at Los Alamos National Laboratory suggests otherwise. Their study reveals an extraordinary idea: when massive stars collapse into black holes, the resulting gamma-ray burst jets could dynamically manufacture free neutrons, fueling the creation of heavy elements in a way never before considered.

The Gamma-Ray Burst Jet: A Cosmic Forge Unleashed

When a massive star runs out of nuclear fuel, it can no longer resist its own gravity, collapsing inward and forming a black hole at its core. If the black hole spins fast enough, its extreme gravity twists surrounding magnetic fields, launching a jet of material at nearly the speed of light. According to the Los Alamos study published in The Astrophysical Journal (Mumpower et al., 2025), this jet does more than just blast outward—it becomes the heart of a new neutron production process.

The jet blasts through the collapsing star, creating a “cocoon” of hot, turbulent material around it. Within this cocoon, high-energy photons—particles of light—are produced in staggering quantities. These photons carry enough energy to initiate nuclear reactions, setting the stage for a process that can dissolve atomic nuclei and generate free neutrons needed for heavy element formation. Like a freight train plowing through deep snow, the jet’s motion carves a path that could become a cosmic forge for the universe’s heaviest ingredients.

Dynamic Neutron Production: A New Pathway to the r-Process

The key breakthrough in this new model lies in how neutrons are created. Traditional r-process models assume that environments already rich in free neutrons are needed, such as during neutron star mergers. However, the Los Alamos team proposes that high-energy photons themselves can manufacture neutrons within the cocoon surrounding the jet.

As the gamma-ray burst jet slams into the star’s outer layers, photons interact with existing protons and atomic nuclei. These interactions can either transmute protons into neutrons or outright shatter atomic nuclei into their constituent protons and neutrons. Calculations show that this process could create free neutrons incredibly quickly—on the order of nanoseconds—satisfying the extreme conditions required for rapid neutron capture (the r-process) to occur.

This dynamic production of neutrons overcomes a major limitation of earlier models. Since free neutrons have a half-life of just about 15 minutes, finding them in abundance during catastrophic cosmic events was always a challenge. By creating neutrons “on the spot,” this framework opens an entirely new channel for heavy element nucleosynthesis.

Igniting the r-Process: Forging the Universe’s Heaviest Elements

Once neutrons are dynamically produced, the real magic begins. The r-process, or rapid neutron-capture process, kicks into gear. In this process, atomic nuclei rapidly capture neutrons before they have time to decay, building up heavier and heavier elements with each capture.

In the cocoon of the jet, the freed neutrons move outwards into cooler regions where they can undergo the r-process efficiently. Because neutrons are chargeless, they are not confined by magnetic fields like protons are; instead, they are swept into the surrounding environment where they encounter atomic seeds that can capture them.

This leads to the formation of the universe’s heaviest elements—gold, platinum, uranium, thorium, and more. The violence of the event ultimately expels these newly forged elements into interstellar space, seeding future generations of stars, planets, and even life with the heavy ingredients necessary for complexity.

The idea that a collapsing star, not just a neutron star merger, could manufacture heavy elements through photon-induced neutron production reshapes our understanding of where the cosmos’ riches truly come from.

Broader Implications: New Clues for Kilonovae and Earth’s Ancient Treasures

This new model has implications far beyond astrophysics. It may help explain strange observations like kilonovae—powerful, short-lived explosions that emit massive amounts of optical and infrared light. Traditionally associated with neutron star collisions, kilonovae may also occur during collapsar events if heavy elements are forged in the way Mumpower’s team suggests.

Furthermore, traces of extraterrestrial heavy elements like plutonium and iron have been found in Earth’s deep-sea sediments. The specific cosmic events responsible for these deposits remain a mystery. This collapsar-jet mechanism could provide an alternative origin for these findings, offering new clues about ancient cosmic events that left their fingerprints on our planet.

If neutron-rich jets from collapsing stars are confirmed as heavy element factories, they would join neutron star mergers as a second, equally important contributor to the universe’s chemical evolution.

Future Directions: Simulations, Observations, and the Quest for Proof

Although the theoretical framework is promising, proving it will require extensive future work. The Los Alamos team plans to run complex multiphysics simulations to model the jet’s behavior, neutron production rates, and nucleosynthesis outcomes. These simulations must account for hydrodynamics, nuclear physics, electromagnetic interactions, and general relativity—all of which combine in these extreme environments.

Another challenge lies in studying the properties of the heavy isotopes produced during the r-process. Many of these isotopes have never been made on Earth and have unknown half-lives, masses, and decay pathways. Advancing nuclear experiments at rare isotope facilities may help bridge this gap, providing the critical data needed to validate models.

Observationally, astronomers will need to look for signatures of heavy element production in long-duration gamma-ray bursts and their afterglows. Finding specific spectral fingerprints of newly formed heavy elements could provide the smoking gun that confirms this exciting new mechanism.

Conclusion: A New Cosmic Factory for Life’s Ingredients

The proposal that collapsing stars can dynamically create free neutrons through high-energy photon interactions represents a monumental shift in our understanding of cosmic chemistry. It challenges long-standing assumptions and opens an exciting new chapter in the story of how the universe forges the elements that make planets, mountains, technology, and even living beings possible.

Reference:

Matthew R. Mumpower et al, Let There Be Neutrons! Hadronic Photoproduction from a Large Flux of High-energy Photons, The Astrophysical Journal (2025). DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/adb1e3